On the cellular stress response to Staphylococcus aureus alpha-toxin

Staphylococcus aureus alpha-hemolysin was the first bacterial toxin recognized to form pores in the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells. It is secreted as a water-soluble monomer that upon contact with target membranes forms an amphiphatic heptameric beta-barrel which perforates the bilayer. As a consequence, red cells undergo colloidosmotic lyses, while some nucleated cells may succumb to necrosis or programmed cell death. However, most cells are capable of repairing a limited number of membrane lesions, and then respond with productive transcriptional activation of NF-kB. In the present study, by using microarray and semiquantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), data from a previously performed serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) were extended and verified, revealing that immediate early genes (IEGs) such as c-fos, c-jun and egr-1 are strongly induced at 2-8 h after transient toxin treatment. Activating protein 1 (AP-1: c-Fos, c-Jun) binding activity was increased accordingly. As IEGs are activated by growth factors, these findings led to the discovery that -toxin promotes cell cycle progression of perforated cells in an EGFR-dependent fashion. Although the amount of c-fos mRNA rose rapidly after toxin treatment, c-Fos protein expression was observed only after a lag of about 3 h. Since translation consumes much ATP, which transiently drops after transient membrane perforation, the suspicion arised that membrane-perforation caused global, but temporary downregulation of translation. In fact, eIF2α became heavily phosphorylated minutes after cells had been confronted with the toxin, resulting in shutdown of protein synthesis before cellular ATP levels reached the nadir. GCN2 emerged as a candidate eIF2α kinase, since its expression rapidly increased in toxin-treated cells. Two hours after toxin treatment, GADD34 transcripts, encoding a protein that targets the catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) to the endoplasmic reticulum, were overexpressed. This was followed by dephosphorylation of eIF2α and resumption of protein synthesis. Addition of tautomycetin, a specific inhibitor of PP1, led to marked hyperphosphorylation of eIF2α and significantly reduced the drop of ATP-levels in toxin-treated cells. A novel link between two major stress-induced signalling pathways emerged when it was found that both translational arrest and restart were under the control of stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK) p38. The data provide an explanation for the indispensible role of p38 for defence against the archetypal threat of membrane perforation by agents that produce small transmembrane-pores.

Mechanisms of resistance of tumor cells in response to treatment with the vacuolar H+-ATPase inhibitor archazolid B

Resistance of cancer cells towards chemotherapy is the major cause of therapy failure. Hence, the evaluation of cellular defense mechanisms is essential in the establishment of new chemotherapeutics. In this study, classical intrinsic and acquired as well as new resistance mechanisms relevant in the cellular response to the novel vacuolar H+-ATPase inhibitor archazolid B were investigated. Archazolid B, originally produced by the myxobacterium Archangium gephyra, displayed cytotoxicity in the low nanomolar range on a panel of cancer cell lines. The drug showed enhanced cytotoxic activity against nearly all cancerous cells compared to their non-cancerous pendants. With regards to ABC transporters, archazolid B was identified as a moderate substrate of ABCB1 (P-glycoprotein) and a weak substrate of ABCG2 (BCRP), whereas hypersensitivity was observed in ABCB5-expressing cells. The cytotoxic effect of archazolid B was shown to be independent of the cellular p53 status. However, cells expressing constitutively active EGFR displayed significantly increased resistance. Acquired drug resistance was studied by establishing an archazolid B-resistant MCF-7 cell line. Experiments showed that this secondary resistance was not conferred by aberrant expression or DNA mutations of the gene encoding vacuolar H+-ATPase subunit c, the direct target of archazolid B. Instead, a slight increase of ABCB1 and a significant overexpression of EGFR as well as reduced proliferation may contribute to acquired archazolid B resistance. For identification of new resistance strategies upon archazolid B treatment, omics data from bladder cancer and glioblastoma cells were analyzed, revealing drastic disturbances in cholesterol homeostasis, affecting cholesterol biosynthesis, uptake and transport. As shown by filipin staining, archazolid B led to accumulation of free cholesterol in lysosomes, which triggered sterol responses, mediated by SREBP-2 and LXR, including up-regulation of HMGCR, the key enzyme of cholesterol biosynthesis. Furthermore, inhibition of LDL uptake as well as impaired LDLR surface expression were observed, indicating newly synthesized cholesterol to be the main source of cholesterol in archazolid B-treated cells. This was proven by the fact that under archazolid B treatment, total free cholesterol levels as well as cell survival were significantly reduced by inhibiting HMGCR with fluvastatin. The combination of archazolid B with statins may therefore be an attractive strategy to circumvent cholesterol-mediated cell survival and in turn potentiate the promising anticancer effects of archazolid B.